Judical reforms of Alexander II

The judicial reform of Alexander II is generally considered one of the most successful and the most consistent (along with the military reform) of all the reforms of Alexander II. During the reform a completely new court system and a completely new order of legal proceedings were established. The main results were the introduction of a unified court system instead of a cumbersome set of Estate-of-the-realm courts, and fundamental changes in criminal trials. The latter included establishment of the principle of equality of the parties involved, introduction of public hearings, jury trial and the institution of a professional advocate which had not existed before in Russia.

The judicial reforms started on November 20, 1864 when the emperor signed the decree which enforced four Regulations (The Establishment of Judicial Settlements, The Regulations of Civil Proceedings, The Regulations of Criminal Proceedings and The Regulations of Punishments imposed by Justices of the Peace).

Court system

The court system of Russia had remained intact since the reign of Catherine II. It included Estates-of-the-realm courts for different estates of the realm. Alexander II introduced a unified two-level system which consisted of General judicial settlements and Local judicial settlements, where settlement stands for body or office. Courts were separated from the executive branch. This remains in effect to this day.

General judical settlements

General judicial settlements include district courts, judicial chambers and the High Court.

Each district court covers several uyezds. Judges are nominated and appointed by the emperor. In order to become a judge a candidate has to meet certain requirements which includes length of service, immaculate reputation and property qualification. A term of 30 years is the limit district court judges. The law provides that different cases depending on the gravity of the offence and on the difficulty of investigation are heard by different board of judges. The board can include three judges, the judge and the jury or the judge and representatives of the estates. Introduction of representatives of the estates who enjoy the same rights as judges is heavily criticised as inconsistent with unification of court system.

One of the most important results of the reform is wide introduction of jury trial. The jury trial includes three professional judges and twelve jurors. In order to be eligible for jury service a person above all has to possess real estate of certain value. Unlike in modern jury trials, jurors decide not only whether the defendant was guilty or not guilty, but they have the third choice: "Guilty, but not to be punished", since Alexander II believed that justice without morality is wrong. The exact sentence is rendered by professional judges. Unlike trials with estate of the realm representatives who could also seat in upper courts jury trials are held only on the level of district court. Though most liberals praised introduction of jury trials certain intellectuals criticised them. Two examples of such critics can be seen in Leo Tolstoy's Resurrection and Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov. In 1878 the revolutionary Vera Zasulich failed to assassinate St. Petersburg Governor-General Theodore Trepov, who had ordered a political prisoner to be flogged. Though it is obvious that the assassination attempt took place and it was Zasulich who performed it the jury and judges acquitted her of all charges. The verdict of the jury and judges was based not on the law but solely on their feeling of injustice committed by Trepov.

Judicial chambers are courts of appeal for cases heard in district courts. It also has original jurisdiction in certain high crimes (usually if offender is an official). Each judicial chamber coveres several guberniyas. Judges are also appointed by the emperor.

The highest court is the High Court. It includes the Department of Cassation in civil cases and Department of Cassation in criminal cases. They hear appeals brought on cases heard in lower courts. The Department of Cassation in criminal cases is also the court of first instance for the most dangerous crimes. In 1877 within the Court the Disciplinary Commission for judges was established.

The Regulations also provide for extraordinary Supreme Criminal Court. It was convened if a high crime is committed by highest officials or if an assassination attempt at the emperor or his relative is made.

Local judical settlements

The Regulations provide for establishment of local courts with justices of the peace which are supposed to deal with minor offences and can not impose sentence more than one year of imprisonment. Each justice of the peace is supposed to serve in a circuit one uyezd comprising several circuits. They are elected for three years by assemblies of pesants and middle clases. However, in many areas there is not enough candidates who ccan the requirements for election, in other areas local authorities hinder the process of election. In several Western regions justices of the peace eventually are appointed by the Minister of Justice. In 1889 the whole institution was abolished everywhere except for Moscow and St. Petersburg. The powers of justices of the peace were vested in local executive authorities. They were restored in 1912.

Regulations Concerning Peasants Leaving Serf Dependence provided for creation of volost' courts. The volost' courts deal with minor offences committed by the peasants. Judges in such courts are local pesants. They are elected for three years by electors appointed by assemblies of pesants. Appeals on decisions rendered by volost' courts are lodged to upper rural courts, which consists of chairmen of local volost' courts. The sentence rendered by upper rural court have to be supervised either by the justice of the peace or (if none) by local authorities.

Court-marital

Court-martial exist separately from other courts. The system of courts-martial is listed in Court-martial Regulations 1867. According to it, minor crimes are dealt with in regiment court. The judges are officers appointed by the head of the regiment. In order to enforce the decision consent of the head of the regiment is required. Grave crimes and appeals are dealt with in District martial courts. The highest instance is the Supreme Court-martial. The members of the Supreme Court-martial are appointed by the emperor.